Types of Dyslexia

Dyslexia is a learning difference that affects up to one in ten individuals across the UK, with a range of age, social background and intelligence. Although it most commonly presents as difficulty with accurate and fluent word reading and spelling, dyslexia contains a broad spectrum of cognitive profiles and strengths. Far from being a single, one-size-fits-all condition, dyslexia comprises multiple subtypes, each characterised by distinct patterns of difficulty, underlying processing deficits and compensatory strategies. Recognising these subtypes is crucial for early identification, tailored intervention and effective support, whether in the classroom, at home or in clinical practice.

In this blog, we will explore the main types of dyslexia – phonological, surface, visual (spatial), rapid naming deficit, deep, double deficit and mixed – shedding light on how each manifests, the cognitive processes involved and the practical approaches to identification and intervention. We will also consider the observable signs and symptoms across age groups, the assessment process, evidence-based support strategies, useful classroom and technology aids, and the roles of various specialists. By the end, readers will be equipped with a nuanced understanding of dyslexia subtypes and a toolkit of strategies to foster literacy development and confidence in individuals with dyslexia.

What Is Dyslexia?

Dyslexia is a specific learning difference primarily affecting literacy skills – reading, writing and spelling – while sparing general intelligence and reasoning abilities. It is neurobiological in origin and often hereditary, linked to differences in brain regions involved in language and auditory processing. The British Dyslexia Association (BDA) defines dyslexia as “a combination of abilities and difficulties” that can impact accurate and fluent word reading, spelling and phonological processing. Dyslexia affects approximately 6–10 per cent of the UK population, with another 10–15 per cent experiencing varying degrees of literacy challenges that may not meet full diagnostic criteria but still benefit from support.

Rather than a static deficit, dyslexia represents a profile of strengths – such as problemsolving, creativity and holistic thinking – paired with challenges in specific areas of language processing. Core features often include weaknesses in phonological awareness (the ability to segment and manipulate sounds), rapid automatised naming (speed of retrieving familiar verbal labels), working memory, processing speed and, in some cases, visual–spatial processing. Importantly, many individuals with dyslexia develop compensatory strategies and excel in domains that rely on big-picture thinking, pattern recognition and verbal comprehension.

Understanding dyslexia as a multifaceted learning difference – rather than merely a reading disorder – enables educators, parents and clinicians to provide targeted support. For effective intervention, it is essential to distinguish among the subtypes, since each arises from different cognitive processing breaks and responds best to specialised approaches.

Phonological Dyslexia

Phonological dyslexia, sometimes referred to as “classic” or “developmental” dyslexia, is the most common subtype and stems from impaired phonological processing. Individuals with phonological dyslexia struggle to map letters (graphemes) to sounds (phonemes), making decoding of unfamiliar words – particularly non-words or pseudo-words – difficult and error- prone. They often rely heavily on whole-word recognition and contextual guessing, which limits their ability to read new vocabulary and undermines reading fluency.

Key characteristics of phonological dyslexia include:

• Difficulty with phoneme segmentation and blending (e.g. breaking “cat” into /k/–/æ/–/t/).
• Poor performance on non-word reading tasks, reflecting a reliance on memorised word forms rather than systematic decoding.
• Spelling errors that mirror phonetic approximations (e.g. spelling “phone” as “fon”).
• Slow, effortful reading and frequent hesitations on unfamiliar words.

Intervention Strategies for Phonological Dyslexia

Successful support for phonological dyslexia centres on structured, systematic phonics instruction embedded in a multisensory framework. Evidence-based programmes include the Orton Academy’s Orton-Gillingham approach and the Barton Reading & Spelling System, which emphasise the following elements:

1. Explicit Phoneme Awareness Training
   – Exercises in segmenting, blending and manipulating phonemes before introducing letter symbols.
   – Use of visual aids (e.g. Elkonin boxes), manipulatives (e.g. counters) and oral drills.
2. Sequential Phonics Instruction
   – Systematic teaching of grapheme-phoneme correspondences, progressing from simple (CVC words) to complex (multisyllabic, irregular) patterns.
   – Regular review and cumulative practice to ensure mastery.
3. Multisensory Techniques
   – Incorporation of visual (seeing letters), auditory (hearing sounds), kinaesthetic (writing letters in sand) and tactile (using letter tiles) modalities to reinforce learning.
   – Simultaneous engagement of multiple senses strengthens memory and retrieval of phoneme-grapheme mappings.
4. Automated Decoding Practice
   – Repeated, timed reading of decodable texts to build speed and accuracy.
   – Emphasis on developing automaticity in word recognition to free cognitive resources for comprehension.

Through consistent, cumulative instruction and frequent practice, individuals with phonological dyslexia can achieve significant gains in decoding ability, reading fluency and spelling accuracy.

Surface Dyslexia

Surface dyslexia arises from deficits in orthographic processing and whole-word recognition rather than phonological awareness. Individuals with surface dyslexia read regular words – in which grapheme-phoneme rules apply – relatively well, but struggle with irregular words (e.g. “knight”, “yacht”) that must be memorised as whole units. Spelling is similarly affected: irregular words are often spelled phonetically rather than according to their correct form.

Characteristic features include:

• Accurate decoding of phonetically regular words but errors or hesitations on exception words.
• Over-reliance on letter-to-sound rules, leading to phonetic approximations (e.g. pronouncing “colonel” as it is spelled).
• Spelling errors that reflect phonetic consistency rather than correct orthography (e.g. spelling “island” as “iland”).
• Difficulty retaining memory of irregular word forms, affecting reading fluency and spelling consistency.

Intervention Strategies for Surface Dyslexia

Support for surface dyslexia focuses on strengthening orthographic knowledge and building a robust sight-word vocabulary:

1. High-Frequency and Irregular Word Practice
   – Systematic teaching of high-frequency irregular words through flashcards, word walls and repeated exposure.
   – Use of “look-cover-write-check” routines to embed correct spellings.
2. Morphemic Analysis
   – Breaking down words into meaningful units (roots, prefixes, suffixes) to aid recognition and spelling of irregular patterns.
   – Teaching common morphemes (e.g. “-tion”, “-ough”) and their variant pronunciations/spellings.
3. Visual Memory Techniques
   – Encouraging learners to “visualise” the whole word, noticing unique letter clusters and spatial patterns.
   – Use of highlight pens to mark irregular segments (e.g. the “ough” in “though”) to draw attention to patterns.
4. Multisensory Spelling Approaches
   – Incorporation of finger-tracing, whiteboard writing and sculpting letters in clay to reinforce orthographic forms.
   – Kinesthetic activities that link muscle memory to visual representations.

Through targeted orthographic training and repeated exposure to irregular word forms, individuals with surface dyslexia can gradually build automatic recognition and accurate spelling of exception words.

Visual (Spatial) Dyslexia

Visual, or spatial, dyslexia is characterised by difficulties in visual processing, perceptual organisation and spatial orientation of letters and words. This subtype is less common than phonological or surface dyslexia but can significantly affect reading accuracy and fluency. Individuals may confuse visually similar letters (e.g. b/d, p/q), transpose letters within words, skip lines of text or lose their place on the page.

Key indicators include:

• Letter reversals and inversions (e.g. reading “was” as “saw”).
• Transposed letters within words (e.g. “form” as “from”).
• Poor visual tracking, leading to skipped or reread lines.
• Difficulty with visual discrimination tasks (e.g. distinguishing between similar shapes).
• Sensitivity to crowded text and busy page layouts.

Intervention Strategies for Visual Dyslexia

Effective support addresses visual-perceptual skills while providing compensatory tools:

1. Visual Tracking and Discrimination Exercises
   – Practice activities such as “follow the dot” mazes, letter-box scanning and matching tasks to hone eye movement control.
   – Sorting exercises for visually similar letters and symbols to build discrimination.
2. Text Presentation Adjustments
   – Use of clear, sans-serif fonts (e.g. Arial, Comic Sans), increased letter spacing and larger font sizes.
   – Line spacing of 1.5 or double and generous margins to reduce visual crowding.
3. Colour and Contrast Modifications
   – Coloured overlays or tinted reading rulers to enhance contrast and reduce glare.
   – High-contrast text-background combinations (e.g. dark blue text on pale yellow background).
4. Guided Reading Aids
   – Use of a reading guide strip or index card with a window cut-out to focus attention on one line at a time.
   – Bookmark strips to maintain place and prevent line skipping.
5. Dyslexia-Friendly Fonts and Tools
   – Introduction of the Dyslexie font to reduce character confusion.
   – Use of BeeLine Reader overlays for graduated colour-coding of text.

By improving visual-perceptual skills and tailoring text presentation, learners with visual dyslexia can achieve greater reading accuracy and comfort.

Rapid Naming Deficit

Rapid naming deficit refers to difficulties in Rapid Automatized Naming (RAN) – the speed with which individuals can name a sequence of familiar items (letters, digits, objects or colours). Slow naming speed is a robust predictor of reading fluency difficulties, independent of phonological awareness. Individuals with this subtype read accurately when decoding is taught systematically, yet read slowly and with difficulty due to limited ability to retrieve verbal labels automatically.

Features of rapid naming deficit include:

• Slow, effortful speed on RAN tasks, even with familiar stimuli.
• Discrepancy between decoding accuracy and reading rate; chunks of text take considerably longer to read than peers.
• Letter-by-letter reading in some cases, as automatic word retrieval is impaired.
• Impact on reading comprehension, as cognitive resources remain tied up in word retrieval rather than meaning construction.

Intervention Strategies for Rapid Naming Deficit

Improving naming speed and automaticity involves targeted practice and fluency-building exercises:

1. Timed RAN Drills
   – Repeated, timed naming of letters, digits and common sight words to build speed and familiarity.
   – Recording and charting progress to motivate learners and track improvements.
2. Fluency-Oriented Reading Practice
   – Paired reading or choral reading, where the learner reads alongside a more fluent reader to model pace.
   – Repeated reading of short passages, progressing from accuracy to speed and expression.
3. Rapid Retrieval Games
   – Timed flashcard races, board games or apps that require quick naming of stimuli.
   – Incorporation of multi-sensory cues (e.g. saying, tracing, writing simultaneously).
4. Automaticity-Building Routines
   – Integrating brief rapid naming exercises into daily warm-ups or transitions.
   – Combining RAN practice with high-interest content to maintain engagement.

Through consistent and motivating fluency exercises, individuals with rapid naming deficits can enhance reading rate, thereby freeing cognitive capacity for comprehension and higherorder skills.

Deep Dyslexia

Deep dyslexia is a rare and typically acquired form of dyslexia observed following lefthemisphere brain injuries such as stroke or traumatic brain injury. It is characterised by semantic errors (e.g. reading “dog” as “cat”), profound difficulty reading non-words and
impaired phonological decoding. In contrast to developmental subtypes, deep dyslexia arises when neural networks responsible for direct phonological assembly and semantic processing are disrupted.

Hallmarks of deep dyslexia include:

• Regularisation errors (applying rule-based pronunciation to irregular words).
• Semantic paralexias (substituting words from the same semantic field).
• Inability to read non-words.
• Preservation of some high-frequency words through whole-word lexical routes.

Intervention Strategies for Deep Dyslexia

Rehabilitation focuses on strengthening residual pathways and compensatory strategies:

1. Semantic Feature Analysis
   – Activities that reinforce semantic networks, such as categorisation tasks and word webs around target vocabulary.
   – Emphasising meaningful contexts and imagery to support word retrieval.
2. Errorless Learning Techniques
   – Gradual introduction of words with decreasing prompts, ensuring correct responses to build confidence.
   – Use of cued-recall and immediate feedback to prevent consolidation of errors.
3. Phonological Boosting Exercises
   – Simplified phoneme blending and segmentation tasks to re-engage phonological routes at a basic level.
   – Pairing phonological drills with semantic cues (e.g. pictures) for dual activation.
4. Compensatory Reading Strategies
   – Encouraging use of context and prediction to support word identification.
   – Training in skimming for gist and relying on familiar sentence frames.

Although deep dyslexia typically requires long-term rehabilitation, targeted approaches can yield improvements in reading accuracy and the ability to derive meaning from text.

Double Deficit Dyslexia

Double deficit dyslexia describes individuals who exhibit both phonological processing impairments and rapid naming deficits. These combined weaknesses often result in the most severe and persistent reading difficulties, affecting decoding accuracy, reading speed and fluency. While single-deficit profiles may respond well to targeted phonics or naming interventions alone, those with double deficits require integrated programmes that address both domains concurrently.

Characteristics include:

• Pronounced struggles with phoneme awareness, decoding and spelling.
• Slow, laboured reading due to naming speed limitations.
• Reduced reading comprehension as a result of dual processing bottlenecks.
• Greater risk of co-occurring difficulties in working memory and attention.

Intervention Strategies for Double Deficit Dyslexia

Integrated intervention blends phonological training with fluency-building to tackle both deficits:

1. Combined Phonological and RAN Drills
   – Alternating short blocks of phonemic awareness instruction with rapid naming exercises within the same session.
   – Multisensory cuing (visual-auditory-kinaesthetic) to strengthen both mapping and retrieval.
2. Guided Oral Reading with Phonics Focus
   – Reading aloud paired with teacher modelling emphasising accurate articulation and pace.
   – Immediate corrective feedback on decoding and pacing, with gradual release to independent practice.
3. Progress Monitoring and Individualised Targets
   – Frequent assessment of both decoding accuracy and reading rate to adjust goals.
   – Use of curriculum-based measures (e.g. words correct per minute) and phoneme segmentation tasks.
4. Technology-Assisted Practice
   – Software that provides timed phonics games and RAN drills, adapting difficulty to learner performance.
   – Use of text-to-speech and speech-to-text features (e.g. Balabolka, ClaroRead, Dragon NaturallySpeaking, Google Docs Voice Typing) to scaffold reading and writing practice.

With concerted, multi-component programmes, individuals with double deficit dyslexia can make gains in both decoding competence and reading fluency, leading to enhanced comprehension and confidence.

Mixed Dyslexia

Mixed dyslexia encompasses profiles in which individuals demonstrate characteristics of more than one of the aforementioned subtypes – most commonly phonological and surface, or phonological and rapid naming deficits. Because mixed profiles combine underlying processing weaknesses, they often present with a complex pattern of reading and spelling challenges that defy simple categorisation.

Features of mixed dyslexia include:

• Variable decoding performance, with inconsistent application of phonological and orthographic strategies.
• Fluctuating reading speed and accuracy across different word types.
• Spelling errors that blend phonetic and orthographic mistakes.
• Difficulty generalising learned strategies to new words.

Intervention Strategies for Mixed Dyslexia

Support for mixed profiles necessitates a comprehensive, flexible approach:

1. Diagnostic Teaching to Identify Strengths and Weaknesses
   – Ongoing, responsive assessment to determine which strategy – phonics, whole-word or context cues – is most effective for each word type.
   – Use of error analyses to guide lesson focus.
2. Adaptive Instructional Design
   – Customised lesson sequences that alternate among phonological, orthographic and fluency activities according to learner profile.
   – Strategic use of multi-sensory methods to reinforce both sound-letter and wholeword mappings.
3. Metacognitive Strategy Coaching
   – Teaching learners to self-monitor and select decoding strategies deliberately (e.g.when to sound out, when to recognise word shape).
   – Reflection exercises to build awareness of error patterns and effective coping techniques.
4. Rich, Contextual Reading Experiences
   – Exposure to varied, high-interest texts that incorporate regular and irregular words in authentic contexts.
   – Discussion and comprehension tasks that motivate and enable application of diverse reading strategies.

By embracing a blended instructional framework and encouraging strategic flexibility, educators can empower learners with mixed dyslexia to become more adept, independent readers.

Signs and Symptoms to Watch For

Early recognition of dyslexia subtypes hinges on observing age-appropriate markers across different stages of literacy development. Although profiles vary, the following signs merit attention:

In the Early Years (Ages 4–6)

• Difficulty learning letter names and sounds.
• Trouble rhyming or clapping syllables in words.
• Confusion between mirror-image letters (b/d, p/q).
• Late talking or limited vocabulary despite average comprehension.
• Resistance to or anxiety about print-based activities.

In Primary School (Ages 6–11)

• Slow and effortful reading aloud, with frequent errors.
• Inconsistency recognising high-frequency sight words.
• Spelling errors that are phonetically plausible but incorrect.
• Poor handwriting and letter formation.
• Avoidance of reading and writing tasks; low self-esteem related to literacy.

In Secondary School and Beyond

• Persistent slow reading and difficulty with text comprehension under time constraints.
• Challenges taking notes, organising written work and producing extended writing.
• Reliance on summarised or audio materials.
• Fatigue and frustration when required to read or write at length.
• Sophisticated verbal skills masking underlying literacy difficulties.

While no single indicator confirms dyslexia, clusters of signs – particularly when they persist despite high-quality instruction – warrant further assessment. Parents and professionals should consider subtype-specific clues: inability to decode pseudo-words suggests phonological dyslexia, whereas frequent semantic substitutions may point to deep dyslexia in acquired cases.

Assessment and Diagnosis of Different Types of Dyslexia

A comprehensive assessment is essential to identify dyslexia subtypes, inform intervention and access statutory support under the SEN Code of Practice (2015) or an Education, Health and Care Plan (EHCP) in England. The assessment process typically involves:

1. Screening Tools
   – Brief instruments (e.g. the British Ability Scales, YARC screeners) to flag reading and spelling difficulties.
   – Checklists and observation scales completed by teachers and parents to note functional literacy challenges.
2. Cognitive and Literacy Battery
   – Standardised tests of phonological awareness (e.g. phoneme segmentation), rapid automatized naming (RAN), orthographic processing and single-word reading.
   – Spelling assessments covering regular, irregular and pseudo-words.
   – Listening comprehension and vocabulary measures to gauge verbal ability.
3. Working Memory and Processing Speed Evaluation
   – Assessments of phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad and central executive (e.g. Digit Span, Corsi Block).
   – Speeded tasks (symbol search, coding) to determine processing bottlenecks.
4. Qualitative Analysis
   – Error analyses to identify patterns indicative of specific subtypes (e.g. regularisation vs. phonetic errors).
   – Detailed review of case history, instructional context and response to prior interventions.
5. Multi-disciplinary Collaboration
   – Input from educational psychologists, specialist dyslexia teachers (SpLD assessors) and speech and language therapists as needed.
   – Consideration of co-occurring difficulties (e.g. dyspraxia, ADHD) that may influence the profile.

A formal diagnosis of dyslexia in the UK usually arises from a qualified educational psychologist’s report, which outlines the cognitive profile, subtype features, impact on learning and recommended accommodations. Early, accurate profiling enables more precise support and monitoring of progress.

Evidence-Based Support Strategies

Effective intervention for dyslexia combines structured literacy instruction, targeted skills training, and support for associated cognitive and emotional challenges. Key evidence-based strategies include:

Structured Literacy Programmes

Structured, sequential programmes that explicitly teach phonological awareness, phonics, morphology, syntax and semantics are foundational. Approaches such as the Orton Academy’s Orton-Gillingham, the Lindamood Phoneme Sequencing Programme (LiPS) and Structured Word Inquiry systematically develop the building blocks of literacy, ensuring learners grasp the rationale behind spelling patterns and grammatical structures.

Multi-sensory Teaching

Engaging multiple sensory pathways – visual, auditory, kinaesthetic and tactile – enhances memory and retrieval of literacy skills. Activities such as tracing letters, sky-writing words, manipulating letter tiles and chanting phoneme sequences ensure concepts are reinforced through diverse modalities.

Memory and Executive Function Supports

Given the working memory and processing speed deficits common in dyslexia, interventions may include:

• Chunking information into smaller units.
• Graphic organisers and mind maps to structure ideas (e.g. MindMeister, XMind).
• Mnemonic devices and visual imagery to aid recall.
• Metacognitive strategy coaching to improve planning, organisation and selfmonitoring during reading and writing tasks.

Fluency and Automaticity Building

Regular practice in reading connected text aloud, timed repeated reading and choral reading fosters automaticity. Incorporating high-interest, decodable texts builds confidence and reduces reliance on compensatory guessing.

Emotional and Self-Esteem Support

Low self-esteem and anxiety often accompany dyslexia, particularly when struggles are misunderstood. Strengths-based approaches that celebrate creativity, problem-solving and verbal skills foster resilience. School-based counselling, peer mentoring and supportive feedback bolster motivation and self-efficacy.

Classroom and Technology Aids

Appropriate accommodations and assistive technology can bridge gaps and empower learners with dyslexia to access curricula on an equal footing.

Assistive Technology

• Text-to-Speech (TTS) software to auditoryise written content (e.g. Balabolka, ClaroRead).
• Speech-to-Text (STT) dictation tools (e.g. Dragon NaturallySpeaking, Google Docs Voice Typing) for written expression.
• Word prediction and grammar checkers to reduce writing effort (e.g. Co:Writer, Grammarly).
• Audiobooks and e-readers with customisable fonts and spacing (e.g. Dyslexie font, BeeLine Reader).
• Mind-mapping software (e.g. MindMeister, XMind) for planning and organising ideas.

Classroom Accommodations

• Extended time for reading, writing and exams.
• Simplified instructions and chunked tasks.
• Lecture notes provided in advance or with outlines.
• Preferential seating to reduce visual and auditory distractions.
• Use of coloured overlays or reading rulers.
• Oral instructions or audio recordings of lessons to reinforce understanding.

By integrating technology and reasonable adjustments, schools can create inclusive learning environments that honour diverse processing styles and promote academic success.

Working with Specialists

A multi-disciplinary approach ensures that individuals with dyslexia receive comprehensive support tailored to their needs.

Educational Psychologists

Conduct diagnostic assessments, interpret cognitive profiles and recommend evidence-based interventions. They liaise with schools to develop SEN support plans and, where necessary, guide EHCP applications.

Specialist Dyslexia Teachers (SpLD Assessors)

Deliver structured literacy instruction in one-to-one or small-group settings. They provide training to mainstream teachers on dyslexia-friendly practices and monitor progress against specific reading and spelling targets.

Speech and Language Therapists

Address language-based difficulties such as phonological processing, auditory memory and expressive language skills. They design activities to improve phoneme manipulation and vocabulary development, supporting reading comprehension.

Occupational Therapists

Work on fine-motor skills, handwriting legibility and visual-perceptual integration. They recommend adaptive tools – handwriting aids, keyboarding programmes – and strategy training to enhance organisation and executive functioning.

Counsellors and Educational Psychologists

Provide emotional support, helping individuals manage anxiety, low self-esteem and resilience. They employ cognitive-behavioural techniques to reframe negative beliefs about learning and foster a positive mindset towards literacy.

Collaboration among these professionals, along with regular communication with families and schools, ensures that interventions remain coordinated, targeted and responsive to evolving needs.

Conclusion and Further Resources

Dyslexia is a diverse learning difference encompassing multiple subtypes, each rooted in specific cognitive processing profiles. By distinguishing among phonological, surface, visual, rapid naming, deep, double deficit and mixed dyslexia, educators and clinicians can tailor interventions that address the precise underlying challenges. Early identification – through vigilant observation of signs and robust assessment – paves the way for timely, evidencebased support, boosting reading accuracy, fluency and spelling while safeguarding selfesteem.

A wealth of resources exists in the UK to guide practice and provide further guidance:

• British Dyslexia Association (BDA) – information, training and accreditation for professionals.
• Dyslexia Action – specialist tuition and resources for families and schools.
• SEND Gateway – official guidance on the SEN Code of Practice and EHCP processes.
• Understood – practical tips, community forums and technology reviews.
• International Dyslexia Association (IDA) – research, best practices and Structure Literacy resources.

By embracing a strengths-based, multi-sensory and data-informed approach, we can ensure that every individual with dyslexia is empowered to fulfil their potential, flourish academically and cultivate a lifelong love of learning.